Lorem Ipsum

	rust	swift	scala
version used	1.13	2.1	2.11
show version	$ rustc --version	$ swift --version	$ scala -version
implicit prologue	none	import Foundation	none; but these libraries always available: java.lang scala as are methods in Predef
grammar and invocation
	rust	swift	scala
interpreter	none	none	$ echo 'println("hello")' > Hello.scala $ scala hello.scala
compiler	$ cat hello.rs fn main() { println!("Hello, world!"); } $ rustc hello.rs $ ./hello Hello, world!	$ cat hello.swift print("Hello, World!") $ swift hello.swift $ ./hello Hello, World!	$ cat hello.scala object Hello { def main(args: Array[String]) { println("Hello, World!") } } $ scalac Hello.scala $ scala Hello
statement terminator	; Newlines are not statement terminators; they are permitted wherever spaces or tabs are permitted to separate tokens.	; or sometimes newline A newline does not terminate a statement when: (1) inside [ ] of an array literal, (2) inside of ( ) parens, (3) after a binary operator, (4) other situations?	; or sometimes newline A newline does not terminate a statement: (1) inside ( ) or [ ], (2) if the preceding line is not a complete statement, (3) if following token not legal at start of a statement.
block delimiters	{ }	{ }	{ }
end-of-line comment	// comment	// comment	// comment
multiple line comment	/* comment line /* nested comment / /	/* comment line /* nested comment / /	/* comment line /* nested comment / /
variables and expressions
	rust	swift	scala
write-once variable	let pi: f64 = 3.14;	let Pi = 3.14	// evaluates 1 + p immediately: val n = 1 + p // evaluated first time n is accessed: lazy val n = 1 + p
modifiable variable	let mut n: i32 = 3; n += 1;	var n = 3 n += 1	var n = 3 n += 1 // evaluates 1 + 2 each time n is used: def n = 1 + 2
assignment	let mut i: i32 = 0; // compiler warns if assignment value not used i = 3;	var i = 0 i = 3
parallel assignment	// only in variable definition: let (m, n) = (3, 7);	var (m, n) = (3, 7)	val (m, n) = (3, 7)
swap	let tmp; tmp = x; x = y; y = tmp;	(x, y) = (y, x)
compound assignment	arithmetic: += -= = /= %= string*: +=	arithmetic: += -= = /= %= string:* += bit: <<= >>= &= \|= ^=	arithmetic: += -= = /= %= string:* none bit: <<= >>= &= \|= ^=
unit type and value	() ()	Void ()	Unit ()
conditional expression	if x > 0 { x } else { -x }	x > 0 ? x : -x	val n = -3 if (n < 0) -n else n
branch type mismatch	// does not compile: if true { "hello" } else { 3 }	// syntax error: true ? "hello" : 3	// expression has type Any: if (true) { "hello" } else { 3 }
null	// Option types only: None	// option types only: nil	null
nullable type	let a: Vec<Option<i32>> = vec![Some(3_i32), None, Some(-4_i32)];		val a = List(Some(3), null, Some(-4))
null test	let a = vec![Some(1_i32), None]; match a[0] { None => println!("a[0] is none"), Some(i) => println!("a[0]: {}", i), } // simple comparison also works: if a[1] == None { println!("a[1] is none"); }
coalesce	let a = vec![Some(1_i32), None]; let i: i32 = a[1].unwrap_or(0_i32);
expression type declaration	1_f64		1: Double
arithmetic and logic
	rust	swift	scala
boolean type	bool	Bool	Boolean
true and false	true false	true false	true false
falsehoods	false	false	false
logical operators	@@&&	!@ ##gray\|//@@&& and	@@ are short-circuit operators.//##	@@&&	!@	&& @	@@ !
relational operators	== != < > <= >=	== != < > <= >=	== != < > <= >=
min and max			math.min 1 2 math.max 1 2
integer type	i8 i16 i32 i64	Int8 Int16 Int32 (Int) Int64	type of integer literals: Int other modular types: Byte Short Long arbitrary precision type: BigInt
unsigned integer type	u8 u16 u32 u64	UInt8 UInt16 UInt32 UInt64 (UInt)
integer literal	-4 // specify size: -4_i32		-4
float type	f32 f64	Float Double	type of float literals: Double other types: Float
arithmetic operators	+ - * / %	+ - * / %	+ - * / %
add integer and float	let n: i32 = 3; let x = n as f64; let y = x + 0.5;		3 + 7.0
integer division and remainder	7 / 3 7 % 3	7 / 3 7 % 3	7 / 3 7 % 3
integer division by zero	runtime error	process sent a SIGILL signal	java.lang.ArithmeticException
float division	7_f64 / 3_f64	Double(7) / 3	(7: Double) / 3
float division by zero	// these are float values but not literals: inf, Nan, or -inf	// these are float values but not literals: +Inf, NaN, or -Inf	evaluates to Infinity, NaN, or -Infinity, values which do not have literals
power	let n = 2_i64.pow(32_u32); let x1 = 3.14_f64.powi(32_i32); let x2 = 3.14_f64.powf(3.5_f64);	pow(2.0, 32.0)	math.pow(2, 32)
sqrt	let x = 2_f64.sqrt();	sqrt(2.0)	math.sqrt(2)
sqrt -1	let x = (-1_f64).sqrt(); // No negative literals and unary negation has lower // precedence that a method, so this is -1: let y = -1_f64.sqrt();	// NaN: sqrt(-1)	math.sqrt(-1) evaluates to NaN, a value which has no literal
transcendental functions	let x = 0.5_f64; x.exp() x.ln() x.log2() x.log10() x.sin() x.cos() x.tan() x.asin() x.acos() x.atan() x.atan2(3.1_f64)	exp log log2 log10 sin cos tan asin acos atan atan2	math.exp math.log math.sin math.cos math.tan math.asin math.acos math.atan math.atan2
transcendental constants	std::f64::consts::PI std::f64::consts::E		math.Pi math.E
float truncation	3.77_f64.trunc() 3.77_f64.round() 3.77_f64.floor() 3.77_f64.ceil()	Int(3.77) Int(round(3.77)) Int(floor(3.77)) Int(ceil(3.77))	?? 3.14.round 3.14.floor returns Double 3.14.ceil returns Double
absolute value and signum	-7_i32.abs() -7.1_f64.abs() -7_i32.signum() -7.1_f64.signum()	abs(-7) fabs(-7.77)	math.abs(-7) math.signum(-7)
integer overflow	panic		modular arithmetic for all types except BigInt
float overflow	evaluates to std::f32::INFINITY or std::f64::INFINITY		evaluates to Infinity, a value which has no literal
arbitrary length integer			val n = BigInt(7) val m = BigInt(12)
arbitrary length integer operators			n + m n - m n * m n / m n % m n == m n < m n < m n <= m n >= m
random number uniform int, uniform float, normal float	use std::rand; let n = rand::random::<uint>() % 100u; let x = rand::random::<f64>(); ??	let i = rand() ??	import scala.util.Random val rnd = Random rnd.nextInt(100) rnd.nextDouble rnd.nextGaussian
random seed set, get, restore		srand(17)	import scala.util.Random val rnd = Random rnd.setSeed(17) none none
bit operators	<< >> & \| ^ !	<< >> & \| ^ ~	1 << 4 1 >> 4 1 & 3 1 \| 3 1 ^ 3 ~ 1
binary, octal, and hex literals	0b101010 0o52 0x21		none 052 0x2a
radix			Integer.toString(42, 7) Integer.parseInt("60", 7)
strings
	rust	swift	scala
string type	String string reference: &str	String	java.lang.String
string literal	let s: &str = "don't say \"no\""; let s2: String = "don't say \"no\"".to_string();	"hello"	"Hello, World!" """Hello, World!"""
newline in literal	let s: &str = "first line second line"; // foobar: let s2: &str = "foo\ bar";	no	in triple quote literal only
literal escapes	\0 \\ \t \n \r \" \\ \xhh \uhhhh \Uhhhhhhhh	\0 \\ \t \n \r \" \' \xhh \uhhhh \Uhhhhhhhh	\b \f \n \r \t \" \' \uhhhh \o \oo \ooo
format string	let s = format!("foo {} {} {}", "bar", 7, 3.14_f32);	let n = 3, m = 5 let msg = "\(n) + \(m) is \(n + m)"	"foo %s %d %.2f".format("bar", 7, 3.1415) val n = 3 val m = 5 val msg = s"$n + $m is ${n + m}"
concatenate	let s1: String = "hello".to_string(); let s2: &str = " world"; let s: String = s1 + s2;	"hello" + " world"	"Hello" + ", " + "World!"
replicate		let ch: Character = "-" let hbar = String(count: 80, repeatedValue: ch)	val hbar = "-" * 80
translate case to upper, to lower	s.to_uppercase() s.to_lowercase()	let s = "hello" let s2 = s.uppercaseString let s3 = "HELLO" let s4 = s3.lowercaseString	"hello".toUpperCase "HELLO".toLowerCase
capitalize			"hello".capitalize
trim both sides, left, right			" hello ".trim
pad on left, on right			?? "hello".padTo(10, " ").mkString
number to string		let n = String(17) let x = String(17.3)	"two: " + 2.toString "pi: " + 3.14.toString
string to number	let n = "12".parse::<i32>().unwrap(); let x = ".037".parse::<f64>().unwrap(); // parse() returns an Option type. // unrwap() panics if parse() returns None.	"17".toInt() // evaluates to nil: "17foo".toInt() // convert to float?	7 + "12".toInt 73.9 + ".037".toFloat raises NumberFormatException if string doesn't completely parse
join			List("do", "re", "mi").mkString(" ")
split			"do re mi".split(" ")
character type		Character	Char
character literal			'h'
length		countElements("hello")	"hello".length
index of substring			"hello".indexOf("hell")
extract substring			"hello".substring(0, 4)
extract character			"hello"(0)
chr and ord			'a'.toInt 97.toChar
dates and time
	rust	swift	scala
date and time types	extern crate chrono; chrono::DateTime		java.util.Date
current date and time	extern crate chrono; let dt = Local::now(); let dt_utc = UTC::now();		import java.util.Date val dt = new Date()
current unix epoch	extern crate chrono; let dt = UTC::now(); let t = dt.timestamp();		dt.getTime / 1000
to unix epoch, from unix epoch	extern crate chrono; let t = dt.timestamp(); let dt2 = chrono::NaiveDateTime::from_timestamp(t, 0);		dt.getTime / 1000 val dt2 = new Date(1451600610 * 1000)
format date	dt.format("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")		import java.text.SimpleDateFormat val fmt = new SimpleDateFormat("yyyy-MM-dd HH:mm:ss") val s = fmt.format(dt)
parse date			import java.text.SimpleDateFormat val fmt = new SimpleDateFormat("yyyy-MM-dd HH:mm:ss") val dt = fmt.parse("2011-05-03 17:00:00")
date subtraction			// difference in milliseconds as Long: dt2.getTime - dt.getTime
add duration			// add one day: val dt2 = new Date(dt.getTime + 86400 * 1000)
date parts			import java.util.Date import java.util.Calendar import java.util.GregorianCalendar al cal = new GregorianCalendar cal.setTime(new Date) cal.get(Calendar.YEAR) cal.get(Calendar.MONTH) + 1 cal.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_MONTH)
time parts			import java.util.Date import java.util.Calendar import java.util.GregorianCalendar al cal = new GregorianCalendar cal.setTime(new Date) cal.get(Calendar.HOUR_OF_DAY) cal.get(Calendar.MINUTE) cal.get(Calendar.SECOND)
build broken-down datetime			import java.util.GregorianCalendar val cal = new GregorianCalendar(2015, 12, 31, 23, 59, 59) val dt = cal.getTime
fixed-length arrays
	rust	swift	scala
literal	let nums = [1i32, 2i32, 3i32];		val a = Array(1, 2, 3)
size			a.size
lookup	nums[0]		val n = a(0)
update	let mut nums = [1i32, 2i32, 3i32]; a[2] = 4;		a(2) = 4
out-of-bounds	compilation error		raises java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBounds
resizable arrays
	rust	swift	scala
declare	let mut a = Vec::new(); let mut a2: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();	let a: Array<Int> = [] let a2: Int[] = []
literal	let mut a = vec![1, 2, 3];	// array is mutable; variable is not: let a = [1, 2, 3]	import scala.collection.mutable.ArrayBuffer val a = ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3)
size	a.len()	a.count	a.length
lookup	a[0]	a[0]	a(0)
update	a[0] = 4;	a[0] = 4	a(0) = 4
out-of-bounds	let mut a = vec![1, 2, 3]; // thread panics: let n = a[7]; // returns None: let n = a.get(7);	raises SIGILL	raises java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
element index			a.indexOf(3)
slice		var a = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"] // ["c", "d"]: a[2...3] a[2..4]	val a = ArrayBuffer("a", "b", "c", "d", "e") // ArrayBuffer("c", "d"): a.slice(2, 4)
slice to end			// ArrayBuffer("c", "d", "e"): a.drop(2)
manipulate back	let mut a: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; a.push(4); let n = a.pop();	let a = [1, 2, 3] a.append(4) // sets num to 4: let num = a.removeLast()	// two ways to append: a.append(4) a += 4 // inspect last item: val x = a.last // pop last item: val y = a.remove(a.length - 1)
manipulate front		let a = [1, 2, 3] a.insert(0, atIndex: 0) // sets num to 0: let num = a.removeAtIndex(0)	val a = ArrayBuffer(7, 8, 9) a.insert(0, 6) // inspect first element: val x = a.first // pop first element: val y = a.remove(0)
concatenate		let a = [1, 2, 3] a += [4, 5, 6] let a3 = [1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6]	val a1 = ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3) val a2 = ArrayBuffer(4, 5, 6) // new ArrayBuffer: val a2 = a1 ++ a2 // add elements to a1: a1 ++= a2
copy	let a: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; let mut a2 = a.clone(); // a[0] does not change: a2[0] = 4;	let a = [1, 2, 3] let a2 = a // also modifies a[0]: a2[0] = 4 a3 = Array(a) // a[0] remains 4: a3[0] = 5	val a = ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3) val a2 = ArrayBuffer[Int]() a2 ++= a
iterate over elements	let a: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; for i in a { println!("i: {}", i); }		for (n <- a) println(n)
iterate over indices and elements			for ((n, i) <- a.zipWithIndex) { println(s"item: $n is at: $i") }
reverse	let mut a: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; a.reverse();	let a = [1, 2, 3] let a2 = a.reverse()	val a2 = a.reverse
sort	let mut a: Vec<i32> = vec![3, 1, 4, 2]; a.sort();	let a = [1, 3, 2, 4] // modifies a in-place and returns it: sort(a)	val a = ArrayBuffer(3, 1, 4, 2) val a2 = a.sortWith(_ < _)
dedupe			ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3, 3).distinct // scala.collection.immutable.Set[Int]: val set = a.toSet
membership	if a.contains(&7) { println!("contains 7"); }		ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3).contains(7)
intersection			val a1 = ArrayBuffer(1, 2) val a2 = ArrayBuffer(2, 3, 4) // multiset intersection: a1.intersect(a2)
union			val a1 = ArrayBuffer(1, 2) val a2 = ArrayBuffer(2, 3, 4) // multiset union: a1.union(a2)
relative complement			val a1 = ArrayBuffer(1, 2) val a2 = ArrayBuffer(2, 3, 4) // multiset difference: a1.diff(a2)
map			a.map(x => x * x)
filter			a.filter(_ > 2)
fold left			// -6: ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3).foldLeft(0)(_ - _)
fold right			// -2: ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3).foldRight(0)(_ - _)
shuffle			val rand = scala.util.Random val a = rand.shuffle(ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3, 4))
flatten			val a = ArrayBuffer(ArrayBuffer(1, 2), ArrayBuffer(3, 4)) val a2 = a.flatten
zip			ArrayBuffer(1, 2, 3).zip(ArrayBuffer("a", "b", "c"))
lists
	rust	swift	scala
literal			// none; use constructor: List(1, 2, 3)
empty list			Nil List()
empty list test			val list = List(1, 2, 3) list == Nil list.isEmpty
cons			1 :: List(2, 3)
head			List(1, 2, 3).head
tail			List(1, 2, 3).tail
head and tail of empty list			// NoSuchElementException: Nil.head // UnsupportedOperationException: Nil.tail
length			List(1, 2, 3).length
nth element			List(1, 2, 3)(0)
element index			// evaluates to 1: List(7, 8, 9).indexOf(8) // evaluates to -1: List(7, 8, 9).indexOf(10)
update			// evaluates to List(1, 4, 3): List(1, 2, 3).updated(1, 4)
concatenate two lists, list of lists			List(1, 2) ::: List(3, 4) List(1, 2) ++ List(3, 4) List(List(1, 2), List(3, 4)).flatten
last and butlast			List(1, 2, 3).last List(1, 2, 3).init
take			List(1, 2, 3).take(2)
drop			List(1, 2, 3).drop(2)
iterate			List(1, 2, 3).foreach(i => println(i)) for (i <- List.range(1, 11).reverse) println(i)
reverse			List(1, 2, 3).reverse
sort			List(1, 3, 2, 4).sortWith((x, y) => x < y) List(1, 3, 2, 4).sortWith(_ < _) List(1, 3, 2, 4).sortWith((x, y) => x > y) List(1, 3, 2, 4).sortWith(_ > _)
map			List(1, 2, 3).map(x => 2 * x) List(1, 2, 3).map(2 * _)
filter			List(1, 2, 3).filter(x => x > 2)
fold from left			List(1, 2, 3).foldLeft(0)(_ + _) List(1, 2, 3).foldLeft(0)((x, y) => x + y)
fold from right			List(1, 2, 3).foldRight(0)(_ - _)
membership			List(1, 2, 3).contains(3)
universal test			List(1, 2, 3).forall(_ > 2)
existential test			List(1, 2, 3).exists(_ > 2)
zip lists			List(1, 2, 3).zip(List("a", "b", "c"))
tuples
	rust	swift	scala
literal	(1, "hello", true)	(1, "hello", true)	(1, "hello", true)
type	let tup: (i32, &str, bool) = (1, "hello", true);	let tup: (Int, String, Bool) = (1, "hello", true)	val tup: (Int, String, Boolean) = (7, "foo", true)
lookup	let tup = (1, "hello", true); let n: i32 = tup.0	let tup = (1, "hello", true) let n: Int = tup.0	val tup = (1, "hello", true) val n: Int = tup._1
deconstruct	let tup = (1, "hello", true); let (n, s, b) = tup; // use underscores for unneeded elements: let (n, _, _) = tup;	let tup = (1, "hello", true) let (n, s, b) = tup // use underscores for unneeded elements: let (n, _, _) = tup	val tup = (1, "hello", true) tup match { case (_, s, _) => println(s) case _ => throw new Exception("bad tuple") }
dictionaries
	rust	swift	scala
declare	let mut dict = std::collections::HashMap::new();	let dict = Dictionary<String, Int>()	import scala.collection.mutable val dict = mutable.Map.empty[String, Int]
literal	// no dict literal let mut dict = std::collections::HashMap::new(); dict.insert("t", 1); dict.insert("f", 0);	let dict = ["t": 1, "f": 0]	// scala.collection.immutable.Map[String,Int]: val dict = Map("t" -> 1, "f" -> 0)
size	dict.len()	dict.count	dict.size
lookup		dict["t"]	dict("f") // returns Option[Int]: dict.get("f")
update		dict["t"] = 2	// mutable.Map only: dict("t") = 2
out-of-bounds behavior		returns nil	raises java.util.NoSuchElementException
is key present		if dict["y"] { println("key found") } else { println("no such key") }	dict.exists(kv => kv._1 == "t")
delete		dict.removeValueForKey("t")	// mutable.Map only: dict.delete("t")
iterate		for (k, v) in dict { println("\(k): \(v)") }	for (kv <- dict) { println(kv._1) println(kv._2) }
keys and values as arrays		// dict.keys and dict.values are iterable: Array(dict.keys) Array(dict.values)	// Iterable[String]: dict.keys // Array[String]: dict.keys.toArray dict.values dict.values.toArray
functions
	rust	swift	scala
define function	fn add(x: f64, y: f64) -> f64 { x + y }	func add(n: Int, m: Int) -> Int { return n + m }	// argument types must be declared: def average(a: Double, b: Double) = (a + b) / 2.0 // return value type must be declared if // function is recursive: def factorial(n: Int): Int = if (n < 1) 1 else n * factorial(n - 1)
invoke function	add(3.7, 2.8)	add(3, 7)	// 3.0: average(1, 2 + 3) // 4.5: average(1, 2) + 3 // parens can be omitted when a function // takes no arguments; by convention parens // are omitted when the function has no // side effects
define function with block body			// braces must be used if body // not an expression: def print_numbers() = { println("one") println("two") }
nest function	fn add_one(x: f64) -> f64 { fn add(x1: f64, y1: f64) -> f64 { x1 + y1 } add(x, 1.0) }	func add_one(n: Int) -> Int { func add(a: Int, b: Int) -> Int { return a + b } return add(1, n) }
named parameter		func my_log(#exp: Double, #base: Double) -> Double { return log(exp) / log(base) } // expose different parameter names: func my_log(exp e: Double, base b: Double) -> Double { return log(e) / log(b) } my_log(exp: 8, base: 2)	def subtract(m: Int, s: Int) = m - s subtract(s = 3, m = 7)
named parameter default value		func incr(n: Int, amount: Int = 1) -> Int { return n + amount } // 4: incr(3) // 5: incr(3, amount: 2)	def logarithm(x: Double, base: Double = math.exp(1)) = math.log(x) / math.log(base) logarithm(2.718) logarithm(10, base = 2)
variable number of arguments		func concat(strings: String...) -> String { var retval = "" for string in strings { retval += string } return retval }
overload function		func add(a: String, b: String) -> String { return a + b }
return value	return arg; otherwise last expression evaluated and not followed by semicolon; otherwise unit ()	return arg	if function body is preceded by = // the return value is the// return arg or last expression evaluated. If function body not preceded by = the return value is Unit.
multiple return values		func divmod(dividend: Int, divisor: Int) -> (Int, Int) { return (dividend / divisor, dividend % divisor) }
recursive function			def range(a:Int, b:Int): List[Int] = if (a > b) List() else a :: range(a + 1, b)
anonymous function		let add_one = {(n: Int) -> Int in n + 1}	(x: Double, y: Double) => (x + y) / 2.0
invoke anonymous function		add_one(2)
function as value		func add(n: Int, m: Int) -> Int { return n + m } let f = add
infix operator in prefix position			none
function in infix position			unary methods can be used as binary operators
currying			def plus(x: Int)(y: Int) = x + y plus(3)(7) def plus2 = plus(2) plus2(7)
lazy evaluation			def arg1(x: => Int, y: => Int): Int = x arg1(7, 1 / 0)
execution control
	rust	swift	scala
if	let signum: i32; if i > 0 { signum = 1 } else if i == 0 { signum = 0 } else { signum = -1 }	var signum: Int if i > 0 { signum = 1 } else if i == 0 { signum = 0 } else { signum = -1 }	if (x > 0) println("pos") else if (x < 0) println("neg") else println("zero")
while	let mut i: i32 = 0; while i < 10 { i += 1 }	var i = 0 while i < 10 { i += 1 }	var i = 0 while (i<10) { printf("%d\n", i) i = i+1 }
for	let mut n: i32 = 1; for i in range(1i, 11i) { n *= i; }	var n = 1 for var i = 1; i <= 10; i++ { n *= i }	for (i <- 1 to 10) println(i)
infinite loop	loop { }		while (true) { }
break and continue	break continue		import scala.util.control.Breaks.break for (i <- 1 to 10) if (i > 5) break else println(i) // there is no continue statement
exceptions
	rust	swift	scala
raise error	panic!("bam!");		throw new Exception("bam!")
handle error	// does not catch all panics: let result = std::panic::catch_unwind(@	@@ { panic!("bam!"); }); if result.is_ok() { println!("no panic"); }		import java.lang._ val x = try { 1 / 0 } catch { case e: ArithmeticException => 0 }
standard exceptions			defined in java.lang: Throwable Error Exception IOException EOFException FileNotFoundException MalformedURLException UnknownHostException ClassNotFoundException CloneNotSupportedException RuntimeException ArithmeticException ClassCastException IllegalArgumentException IllegalStateException IndexOutOfBoundsException NoSuchElementException NullPointerException Error, RuntimeException, and subclasses theoreof are normally unrecoverable
assert	assert!(1 == 0);		assert(1 == 0)
concurrency
	rust	swift	scala
file handles
	rust	swift	scala
standard file handles	use std::io; io::stdin io::stdout io::stderr	let stdin = NSFileHandle.fileHandleWithStandardInput() let stdout = NSFileHandle.fileHandleWithStandardOutput() let stderr NSFileHandle.fileHandleWithStandardError()	System.in System.out System.err
read line from stdin	use std::io; let s = io::stdin().read_line().ok().expect("Failed to read line");	none	import scala.io.StdIn.readLine // newline is removed: val s = readLine()
write line to stdout	println!("Hello, World!"); // argument of println! must be a literal. // To print a variable: let s = "Hello, World!"; println!("{}", s);	print("Hello, World!")	println("lorem ipsum")
write formatted string to stdout		let s = "Spain" let i = 17 let x = 3.1415 let fmtx = NSString(format: "%.2f", x) print("\(s) \(i) \(fmtx)")	printf("%s %d %.2f", "Spain", 17, 3.1415)
open file for reading		import scala.io.Source val path = "/etc/hosts" val f = Source.fromFile(path)	import scala.io.Source val path = "/etc/hosts" val f = Source.fromFile(path)
open file for writing		let path = "/tmp/test" NSFileManager().copyItemAtPath( "/dev/null", toPath: path, error: nil) let f = NSFileHandle( forWritingAtPath: path)
open file for appending		let f = NSFileHandle( forWritingAtPath: "/tmp/err.log") f.seekToEndOfFile()
close file		f.closeFile()	import scala.io.Source f.close
close file implicitly		class Defer { var fun: ()->() init(fun: ()->()) { self.fun = fun } deinit { fun() } } var defer = Defer({()->() in f.closeFile()})
read line		none	import scala.io.Source val src = Source.fromFile("/etc/passwd") for (line <- src.getLines) print(line)
iterate over file by line		none
read file into array of strings		none
read file into string		let data = f.readDataToEndOfFile() let s = NSString( data: data, encoding: NSUTF8StringEncoding)
write string		f.writeData("Hello, World!".dataUsingEncoding( NSUTF8StringEncoding))
write line		f.writeData("Hello, World!\n".dataUsingEncoding( NSUTF8StringEncoding))	val out = new java.io.FileWriter("/tmp/test-scala") out.write("hello out\n") out.close
flush file handle		f.synchronizeFile()
get and set filehandle position		let pos = f.offsetInFile f.seekToFileOffset(0)
files
	rust	swift	scala
file test, regular file test			import java.io.File val f = new File("/etc/hosts") f.exists f.isFile
file size			import java.io.File val f = new File("/etc/hosts") f.length
is file readable, writable, executable			import java.io.File val f = new File("/etc/hosts") f.canRead f.canWrite f.canExecute
set file permissions			mport java.io.File val f = new File("/tmp/foo") // sets owner perms; to turn perms off // set arg to false: f.setReadable(true) f.setWritable(true) f.setExecutable(true) // if 2nd arg is false, perms are // for owner, group, and other: f.setReadable(true, false) f.setWritable(true, false) f.setExecutable(true, false)
copy file, remove file, rename file			import java.nio.file.Files import java.nio.file.Paths val path = Paths.get("/tmp/foo") // possible java.nio.file.FileAlreadyExistsException: Files.copy(path, Paths.get("/tmp/bar")) Files.deleteIfExists(path) // possible java.nio.file.NoSuchFileException: Files.delete(path) Files.move(Paths.get("/tmp/bar", path)
create symlink, symlink test, readlink			import java.nio.file.Files import java.nio.file.Paths val target = Paths.get("/etc/hosts") val path = Paths.get("/tmp/hosts") // Possible java.nio.file.FileAlreadyExistsException: Files.createSymbolicLink(path, target) Files.isSymbolicLink(path) Files.readSymbolicLink(path)
generate unused file name			import java.nio.file.Files val path = Files.createTempFile("foo", ".txt")
directories
	rust	swift	scala
build pathname			import java.io.File val root = File.listRoots()(0) val hosts = new File(new File(root, "etc"), "hosts") val path = hosts.getPath
dirname and basename			import java.io.File val f = new File("/etc/hosts") val dirn = f.getParent val basen = f.getName
iterate over directory by file			import java.io.File val dir = new File("/etc") // Array[String]: dir.list // Array[java.io.File]: dir.listFiles
make directory			import java.io.File val dir = new File("/tmp/foo/dir") dir.mkdirs
remove empty directory			import java.io.File val dir = new File("/tmp/foodir") dir.delete
remove directory and contents			// libraryDependencies += "commons-io" % "commons-io" % "2.4" import org.apache.commons.io.FileUtils import java.io.File FileUtils.deleteDirectory(new File("/tmp/foo"))
directory test			import java.io.File val f = new File("/etc") f.isDirectory
temporary directory			import java.nio.file.Files val dir = Files.createTempDirectory(null) // path as string: dir.toString // arrange for directory to be deleted: dir.toFile.deleteOnExit
processes and environment
	rust	swift	scala
command line arguments			object Test { def main(args: Array[String]) { for (arg <- args) println(arg) } }
program name			A scala program is run as scala CLASS [ARG ...] The VM then searches CLASSPATH for CLASS. CLASS is the nearest analog to the program name and can be determined statically.
getopt			// built.sbt: // // libraryDependencies += "com.github.scopt" %% "scopt" % "3.3.0" case class Config( foo: Int = 0, bar: String = "" ) val parser = new scopt.OptionParser[Config]("scopt") { opt[Int]('f', "foo") action { (x, c) = c.copy(foo = x) } text("foo is integer") opt[String]('b', "bar") action{ (x, c) = c.copy(bar = x) } text("bar is string") } parser.parse(args, Config()) match { case Some(config) = println(config.foo) println(config.bar) case None = // bad args; usage was displayed }
get and set environment variable			// java.util.NoSuchElementException if not defined: sys.env("HOME") // returns Option[String]: sys.env.get("HOME") // Environment variables are read only, but new values can be // set when creating child processes.
get pid, parent pid			// no portable technique
get user id and name			System.getProperty("user.name") // no property for uid
exit			System.exit(1)
set signal handler			import sun.misc._ Signal.handle(new Signal("INT"), new SignalHandler() { val start = System.nanoTime() def handle(sig: Signal) { val end = System.nanoTime() println(s"\n${(end - start) / 1e9f} seconds") System.exit(0) } })
external command			import scala.sys.process._ val exitCode = "ls /tmp".!
escaped external command			import scala.sys.process._ import java.io.File // if args contain spaces, use List(): val exitCode = List("touch", "/tmp/some file").! ##gray\|// there are operators for shell @@&&,	, and \|@@:## (( "ls /tmp" #&& "ls /etc") #\| "grep ssh").! // redirection example: ("ls" #> new File("/tmp/ls.out")).!
backticks			import scala.sys.process._ val s = "ls".!!
libraries and namespaces
	rust	swift	scala
define namespace			package foo { class A class B } // Alternate syntax; must be first statement in file; // declares entire file to be in namespace package foo
define child namespace			package foo.bar { class A } // Alternate nested syntax: package foo { package bar { class A } } // Alternate syntax; must be first statement in file: package foo.bar
reference identifier in another file			// no import needed if identifier is fully qualified: val a = new foo.bar.A
import definitions			import foo.A val a = new A // imports A and B: import foo.{A, B} // Import statements can appear after or inside class definitions, // or inside methods.
import all definitions in namespace			import foo._ val a = new A val b = new B
import namespace			import foo.bar val a = new bar.A val b = new bar.B
shadow avoidance			import foo.bar.{A => LetterA} val a = new LetterA
library path environment variable			$ cat src/foo/bar/A.scala package foo.bar object A { def main(args: Array[String]) { println("Hello, World!") } } $ scalac src/foo/bar/A.scala $ dir=$(pwd) $ cd / $ CLASSPATH=$dir scala foo.bar.A The default CLASSPATH is the current directory. Directories are separated by colons : on Unix and semicolons ; on Windows. Jar files can also be put in the CLASSPATH.
create package			$ cat src/foo/bar/A.scala package foo.bar object A { def main(args: Array[String]) { println("Hello, World!") } } $ mkdir target $ scalac -d target src/foo/bar/A.scala $ find target -name '*.class' \| xargs jar cf App.jar $ CLASSPATH=App.jar scala foo.bar.A
inspect package			$ jar tf App.jar
install package	$ cat Cargo.toml [package] name = "main" version = "0.1.0" authors = ["Bob "] [dependencies] chrono = "0.2.25" $ cat src/main.rs extern crate chrono; fn main() { let t = chrono::UTC::now(); println!("t: {}", t.format("%Y-%m-%d")); } $ cargo build		$ cat build.sbt libraryDependencies += "commons-io" % "commons-io" % "2.4" $ sbt package
list installed packages			$ find ~/.ivy2/cache -name '*.jar'
user-defined types
	rust	swift	scala
		typealias CustomerId = Int var customer_id: CustomerId = 3	type Name = String
sum type	enum DayOfWeek { Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun } let dow: DayOfWeek = Mon;	enum DayOfWeek { case Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun } let dow = DayOfWeek.Tue	abstract class Color case object Red extends Color case object Blue extends Color case object Green extends Color val col = Red // this won't compile: col < Green
tuple product type with one field			class SpecialInt(x: Int) val n = new SpecialInt(7)
tuple product type with two fields			class IntPair(a: Int, b: Int) val p = new IntPair(7, 11)
record product type		struct MedalCount { var country: String var gold: Int, silver: Int, bronze: Int }	case class Customer( id: Int, name: String, address: String )
record product type literal		var spain = MedalCount( country: "Spain", gold: 3, silver: 2, bronze: 1 )	Customer(7,"John","Topeka, KS") Customer(id=7, name="John", address="Topeka, KS")
product type member access		let france_total = france.gold + france.silver + france.bronze
product type member assignment		var france: MedalCount france.country = "France" france.gold = 7 france.silver = 6 france.bronze = 5
generic type			class Twosome[A, B](a: A, b: B) val p = new Twosome("pi", 3.14)
recursive type			abstract class BinaryTree case class Tree(left: BinaryTree, right: BinaryTree) extends BinaryTree case class Leaf(x: Int) extends BinaryTree
pattern match sum type	let msg = match col { Red => "red", Blue => "blue", Green => "green", };		val c:Color = Red; c match { case Red => "red"; case Green => "green"; case Blue => "blue" }
pattern match product type
pattern match guard			match { case i: Int if i < 0 => - i; case i: Int => i }
pattern match catchall	let msg = match col { Red => "red", _ => "not red", };		val c : Color = Green c match { case Red => "red"; case _ => "not red" }
objects
	rust	swift	scala
define class			// Constructor takes optional param of type Int. // // Precede param name by val or var // to implicitly define an instance variable class Counter(n: Int = 0) { // Executes when object is created. // // java.lang.IllegalArgumentException if false. require(n >= 0) // Instance variables public by default private var _n = n // Getter: def value = _n // Setter: def value_=(n: Int) { _n = n } // Object-mutating method: def incr { _n += 1 } }
create object			val c = new Counter val c2 = new Counter(1)
invoke method			c.incr() c.value = c.value + 1
define class variable and method			// Define singleton object outside of class body: object Counter { // Class variables can be declared private; Counter constructor // and instance methods stil have access: var instances = 0 def incrInstances { instances += 1 } }
invoke class method			Counter.incrInstances
inheritance and polymorphism
	rust	swift	scala
subclass			class Base { println("instantiating Base") def name = { "Base" } } class Derived extends Base { println("instantiating Derived after Base") // Compilation error if override omitted or // if method with same name not defined in base class. override def name = { "Derived" } }
abstract base class			abstract class Base { // compilation error if derived class does not define name: def name: String }
mixin
unit test
	rust	swift	scala
test class			import org.scalatest.FunSuite class FooSuite extends FunSuite { test("a simple test") { assert(0 == 0, "zero not equal to itself") } }
run all tests, run test suite			$ cat build.sbt libraryDependencies += "org.scalatest" %% "scalatest" % "3.0.0-SNAP13" $ sbt test $ sbt > testOnly FooSuite
exception assertion			intercept[IndexOutOfBoundsException] { "val a = List(1, 2, 3) "val n = a(4) }
setup			import org.scalatest.FunSuite import org.scalatest.BeforeAndAfter class FooSuite extends FunSuite with BeforeAndAfter { before { print("before called\n") } test("zero equals self") { assert(0 == 0) } }
teardown			import org.scalatest.FunSuite import org.scalatest.BeforeAndAfter class FooSuite extends FunSuite with BeforeAndAfter { test("zero equals self") { assert(0 == 0) } after { print("after called\n"); } }
debugging and profiling
	rust	swift	scala
lint			$ brew install scalastyle $ scalastyle Hello.scala
run debugger			Scala IDE for Eclipse has a debugger
profile code			Runs app under a sampling profiler. Profiling info is written to stdout. HotSpot VM only. $ JAVA_OPTS=-Xprof scala SomeApp
memory tool			$ JAVA_OPTS=-XX:+PrintGCDetails scala SomeApp
repl
	rust	swift	scala
invoke repl		$ swift	$ scala
previous values		$R0, $R1, ...	res0, res1, ...
help		:help	:help
quit		:quit	:quit
inspect type			repl displays the type of any expression entered
	________________________________________________________________	_________________________________________________________________	_________________________________________________________________

version used

The version used for examples in this sheet.

implicit prologue

Boilerplate which is assumed to be present by examples in this sheet.

Grammar and Invocation

interpreter

How to run the interpreter on a file of source code.

scala:

Scala can be run "Perl style" like this:

scala foo.scala

or "Java style" like this:

scala Foo

When the code is run "Java style", the code to be executed must be in the main method of an object with the same name as the file. When the code is run "Perl style" the statements o be executed should be at the top level outside of any object, class, or method.

To use scala as a shebang, it is necessary to terminate the shell script portion of the script with !#

#!/bin/sh
exec scala $0 $@
!#
println("hello world")

compiler

How to run the compiler.

statement terminator

scala:

Scala infers the existence of a semicolon at the end of a newline terminated line if none of the following conditions hold:

the line ends with a infix operator, including a period
the following line begins with a word that is not legal at the start of a statement
the line ends inside parens or square brackets, neither of which can contain multiple statements

block delimiters

How blocks of statements are delimited.

end-of-line comment

The syntax for a comment which goes to the end of the line.

multiple line comment

The syntax for a comment which beginning and ending delimiters which can span multiple lines.

Variables and Expressions

let ... in ...

How to define local variables.

scala:

Blocks can be used in Scala exclusively to define scope. Furthermore blocks are expressions and evaluate to their last statement.

Arithmetic and Logic

integer types

The most commonly used numeric types.

scala:

Arithmetic operators can be used on values of type Char, which then behaves as a 16 bit unsigned integer. Integer literals are of type Int unless suffixed with L:

scala> 9223372036854775807L
res24: Long = 9223372036854775807

scala> 9223372036854775807
<console>:1: error: integer number too large

integer overflow

What happens when expression evaluates to an integer that is larger than what can be stored.

scala:

The largest integers are available in the constants Int.MaxValue and Long.MaxValue.

random number

How to generate a uniformly distributed random integer; how to generate a uniformly distributed float; how to generate a normally distributed float.

scala:

One can also use java.util.Random, which does not have to be imported.

random seed

How to set a random seed. How to get and restore the state of a random number generator.

scala:

It looks like Scala 2.10 has modified the Random constructor so that it will accept an Int or Long as a seed argument.

Strings

string type

The types for strings and characters.

string literal

The syntax for a string literal.

newline in literal

literal escapes

scala:

Unicode escapes might not work when scala is installed on a Mac because the encoding is set by default to MacRoman:

scala> System.getProperty("file.encoding")
res0: java.lang.String = MacRoman

This can be fixed by passing the following flag to java in the scala shell script:

-Dfile.encoding=UTF-8

format string

concatenate

How to concatenate strings.

replicate

translate case

How to convert a string to uppercase; how to convert a string to lowercase; how to capitalize the first character.

capitalize

trim

pad

number to string

string to number

How to parse numeric types from string; how to convert numeric types to strings.

scala:

The + operator will convert a numeric type to a string if the other operand is a string. Hence the following works:

"value: " + 8

join

split

character type

character literal

length

How to get the length of a string.

index of substring

How to get the index of a substring.

extract substring

How to extract a substring.

extract character

How to get the character at a specified index of a string.

The syntax for a character literal.

chr and ord

How to convert a character to its ASCII code or Unicode point; how to convert an ASCII code or Unicode point to a character.

Dates and Time

Fixed-Length Arrays

Resizable Arrays

Lists

list literal

list element element

list head

list-tail

Supports List.tl (with a warning) to be compatible with OCaml.

Tuples

literal

The syntax for a tuple literal.

type

How to declare a variable with a tuple type.

lookup

How to lookup an element in a tuple.

deconstruct

How to extract all the elements in a tuple.

Dictionaries

Functions

function

How to define a function.

scala

Recursive functions must have their return type declared because the Scala compiler cannot infer it.

lambda

How to define an anonymous function.

piecewise defined function

How to define a function with multiple equations and matching on the arguments.

recursive function

How to define a recursive function.

mutually recursive functions

How to define two functions which call each other. Mutual recursion can be eliminated by inlining the second function inside the first function. The first function is then recursive and can be defined independently of the second function.

named parameter

How to define and invoke a function with named parameters.

named parameter default value

How to make named parameters optional by providing a default value in the definition.

infix operator in prefix position

How to invoke an infix operator in prefix position.

function in infix position

How to invoke a function in infix position.

currying

How to create a curried function by providing values for some of the arguments of a function.

scala:

Functions can only be curried if they are defined with special syntax. Functions defined with this syntax must be invoked with a pair of parens for each argument.

function composition operator

An operator which takes two functions as arguments and returns a function constructed from them by composition.

lazy evaluation

How to evaluate the arguments to a function in a lazy manner.

Lazy evaluation is also called call-by-name.

scala:

Functions can be defined to evaluate their arguments lazily by putting a {{=> operator between the colon and the type of the parameter in the function signature.

We can define arg1 so that the first argument is strict and the second argument is lazy:

def arg1(x: Int, y: => Int): Int = x

arg1(7, 1 / 0)

strict evaluation

How to evaluate arguments before they are passed to a function.

Strict evaluation is also called call by-value.

Execution Control

Exceptions

raise error

How to raise an error.

handle error

How to handle an error.

Concurrency

Filehandles

Files

Directories

Processes and Environment

Libraries and Namespaces

namespace example

namespaces

file name restrictions

import

namespace creation

namespace alias

namespace separator

subnamespace

inspect namespace

User-Defined Types

Objects

Inheritance and Polymorphism

REPL

repl

repl limitations

repl last value

help

inspect type

load source file

search path

set search path on command line

Rust

The Rust Reference
The Rust Standard Library

Scala

The Scala Language Specification: Version 2.9 (pdf)
Scala API Docs

Swift

As of June 2014, to use Swift one must download and install a beta version of Xcode 6, then:

$ sudo xcode-select -s /Applications/Xcode6-Beta.app/Contents/Developer/

$ xcrun swift